Assignment: Organism Physiology

Assignment: Organism Physiology

Assignment: Organism Physiology
Each Individual will draw an organ system at random and write a 800-1100 word paper on discussing the basic functions of the organ system, major organs its normal physiology, three common diseases, their causes, and a minimum of two types of treatment.
My organ is ” urinary ”
Let me know if that makes sense?
Insects are novel model organisms to examine human diseases and to establish drug toxicity due to the conservation of their signaling pathways, energy metabolism and structural components with mammals. Furthermore, insects are cost-effective, easy to rear and time-efficient in the early steps of drug discovery and physiological processes investigation. For over 100 years, the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, has been a powerful tool in genetic, behavioral and molecular biology studies. Beyond Drosophila, some other insects such as Galleria mellonella, Bombyx mori, Periplaneta americana, and Locusta migratoria have been used in biological, medical and environmental research (Stankiewicz et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2014; Soumya et al., 2017; Mikulak et al., 2018). In addition to these insect species, scientists have been recently searching for new model insects for studies in physiological and environmental studies.
During the last decade, the interest of scientists on the Coleoptera order increased, the richest order in the animal kingdom with approximately 400,000 species constituting almost 25% of all known animal life-forms and occupying most terrestrial environments (Stork et al., 2015). Beetles interact with plants and other organisms as well as dead and decaying biotic materials, thus playing a key role in natural and human-dominated ecosystems (McKenna et al., 2009). They have survived major floral and faunal disasters and several mass extinctions over their 300 million years of history (McKenna et al., 2016). Furthermore, many beetle species are serious pests in many areas of the world, leading to significant losses in the nutritional value of plants and agricultural products (Tribolium Genome Sequencing Consortium, 2008). Therefore, the sequencing of some beetle genomes has provided a powerful tool for revealing genomic innovations contributing to the evolutionary success of beetles and understanding of insecticide resistance mechanisms, the specificity and effectiveness of insecticides and biological agents, the interactions of host plants with microorganisms, and, finally, the development of new protection methods.
So far, 11 genomic sequences are available for 11 beetle species; among them, 7 have been published (McKenna, 2018). The first sequenced beetle genome was the red flour beetle, T. castaneum, an important pest of agricultural products (Tribolium Genome

Sequencing Consortium, 2008). The T. castaneum genome contains large expansions of odorant receptors, gustatory receptors, and genes putatively involved in detoxification, which reflects the ability of the pest to interact with a diverse chemical environment. Some developmental processes of T. castaneum are more representative and comparable to those of mammals than those of Drosophila (Schroder et al., 2008). The ancestral genes involved in cell-to-cell communication expressed in the growth zone crucial for axial extension in short-term development make T. castaneum ideal for studying the evolution of development, such as segment specifications (Von Dassow et al., 2000) or multilevel selection (Goodnight, 2005). Genetic knowledge, and, in particular, easy genetic manipulations of gene expression RNA interference (RNAi) (Bucher et al., 2002; Knorr et al., 2018) at different stages of T. castaneum development make this beetle an even more valuable model in a number of research fields, for example, identification of targets for selective insect control. Currently, T. castaneum is a one of the most convenient genetic models for post-genomic studies such as RNA expression profiling, proteomics and functional genomics, mechanisms of insect immunity (Altincicek and Vilcinskas, 2007), gene–food interactions (Grunwald et al., 2013) or host–pathogen relationships (Milutinović et al., 2013).

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A short time after the T. castaneum genome was sequenced, other beetle genomes were also sequenced; in 2013, the mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae, an important forest pest (Keeling et al., 2013), and in 2015, the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei, and the burying beetle, N. vespilloides, (Cunningham et al., 2015b; Vega et al., 2015) genomes were published. In their genomes, genes putatively involved in detoxification and plant cell wall degradation, as well as gene of bacterial sucrose-6-phosphate hydrolase, with proposed relevance to digestive physiology have been found. Furthermore, it was found that the N. vespilloides genome has an active DNA methylation system and genes responsible for social behavior. The genomes of Oryctes borbonicus (Meyer et al., 2016) and Anoplophora glabripennis (McKenna et al., 2016) were published in 2016.

Of particular interest is the sequencing of the genome of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, one of the main pests that is difficult to manage, which has a special ability to adapt to solanaceous plants and changing environmental conditions (Schoville et al., 2018). The L. decemlineata genome analysis supports a rapid evolutionary change and confirms the genomic basis of phytophagy and insecticide resistance. It was found that L. decemlineata has evolved resistance to over 50 pesticides. Adaptations to plant nutrition have been observed in gene expansions that are putatively involved in digestion and detoxification, as well in gustatory receptors for bitter taste. The spectacular ability to exploit novel host plants and unusual resistance together with the newly released genome make L. decemlineata a good model system for agricultural pest genomics and developing sustainable methods to control this pest (Schoville et al., 2018).
Sequencing of genomes combined with the development of proteomic techniques such as mass spectrometry enables the understanding of the evolutionary and genomic basis of the biodiversity of beetles’ genomes and importantly, applying new technologies to the exploitation of beetle genomes for human purposes. However, the majority of beetles intensively developed in many research areas, e.g., Tenebrio molitor, Coccinella septempunctata, Poecilus cupreus and many others, still have unknown genomes. We suppose that it is only a matter of time because beetles are convenient and inexpensive animal models, invaluable for studying physiological processes during insect development and biomedical and pharmacological research between invertebrates and vertebrates.

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